LI BRARY OF CONGRE SS. | 

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i UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



Compliments of the Author. 



THE 



PRESERVATION OF LIFE 
AT SEA. 



A PAPER READ BEFORE THE 

AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 

February 27th, 1879. 



THEODORUS ~b€ M . MASON, 

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LIEUTENANT U. S. NAVY. 

FROM THE BULLETIN OF THE SOCIETY. 



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NEW YORK 
1879. 



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,APR W 1879 / 



THE PRESERVATION OF LIFE AT SEA. 



— y 

By Lieutekant T. B. M. Mason, United States Navy. 



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"Measure human sympathy, and you will have taken the dimensions of 

this subject."* 

The subject upon which I have been invited to lecture this even- 
ing is one that concerns either directly or indirectly every person in 
this room. We are all liable at some time to be exposed to the 
dangers to which I shall refer. My object will be to show you 
some of the means by which a danger may be met, if by others it 
has not been prevented. Many of these plans are exceedingly 
simple, and some of them might be effective if at hand, or in the 
mind even, in the moment of danger. Few persons are able to 
invent ideas at that time, but if they have thought over the subject 
in hours of safety, they may be able not only to save themselves, 
but all on board. 

Perhaps my profession, and the inquiry and correspondence re- 
sulting from a paper read by me last year, before the United States 
Naval Institute, has caused me to overvalue the general interest of 
the details I have brought together. In enlarging on them before 
you, I may weary your patience, or in my mode of presenting them 
I may not do justice to the subject. In asking your indulgence, 
therefore, I will recall the axiom " Poeta nascitur, orator fit," as 
specially applicable, in that I have never yet discovered that the 
role of orator fitted the sailor. 

As the description of a number of models and views is necessary 



*Speech of Hon. Chas. B. Roberts, of Maryland, on the Life-saving Service, House Repre- 
sentatives, June 3d, 1878. 



to illustrate the subject, the presentation of which will involve some 
delay, I trust you will excuse me should I trespass a little beyond 
the usual time devoted to a paper ; and that you will understand 
that, in presenting or favoring any invention, I shall do so with no 
personal interest beyond that caused by a conviction that they meet 
admitted wants, and appear, on examination, to justify the approval 
they have received from others, either making the life-saving 
service a specialty, or ordered to test them by constituted 
authority. 

I shall divide my subject under the headings of : personal efforts; 
aids to personal efforts; aids to combined efforts; preservation of 
ships; and the life-saving services. 

PEESONAL EFFOETS. 

The first and most important necessities for preservation, in case 
of marine accidents, are: coolness and a knowledge of swimming. 
Coolness, because it allows you to use your mind, to think what it 
is best to do; if your mind cannot tell you, it will at least advise 
you to keep out of other people's way, and do what others, better 
informed, may suggest. 

Swimming, because it enables you to take care of yourself in the 
water, and perhaps assist others. It is true that a person who 
could not walk, could still get about by the aid of crutches, me- 
chanical chairs, and the assistance of others; so a person who cannot 
swim may be saved. There are times, however, when, there being 
no artificial means at hand, only swimming will save you. 

Some here may know the old story of " the philosopher and the 
boatman," who were crossing a river in a boat. The student had 
been telling his companion that he had wasted most of his life by 
not knowing how to read and write. Soon after, the boat sinking, 
the boatman asked if he had learned to swim, and on being informed 
in the negative, remarked that he had wasted the whole of his. 

Swimming should be learned when young; it is a delightful exer- 
cise, affording much amusement, as well as a feeling of security to 
yourself and to your friends when you are near the water. No 
young person would consider it a hardship to be taught, but few 
comparatively now have the opportunity. 



JOURNAL, VOL. XI,AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 




Fig. 1. STIFF POSITION, ATTEMPTING TO KEEP HEAD OUT. 
Fig. ». PROPER POSITION FOR SWIMMING. 
Fig. 3. FLOATING ON THE BACK. 



The great majority of people cannot swim, and, strange as it may 
seem to you, there are many who follow the sea as a profession who 
cannot swim a stroke. 

There should be swimming tanks attached to all our gymnasiums 
and schools, where children should be taught to swim as they 
are now taught, or ought to be taught, calesthenics, dancing and 
riding. 

I have often heard persons say that the best way to teach a child 
to swim was to pitch it into deep water, and thus force it to look 
out for itself. This might teach some, but certainly it would be a 
most risky method, and one not likely to be tried by a parent. One 
of the first principles in the instruction is not to frighten the pupil. 
Confidence once destroyed can rarely be replaced. 

Some persons teach swimming by supporting the beginner's head. 
This is a slow and sometimes unsuccessful way, as is that of using 
life preservers — neither begetting that all-important quality, self- 
confidence. 

At the United States Naval Academy, where all the cadets are 
taught to swim, the following method is practiced : 

When the new cadets enter, each year, they are asked if they can 
swim ; those who say they can are required to demonstrate the fact; if 
they show proficiency, they are excused from further attendance in 
this branch, and are allowed to join the older cadets in deep water 
bathing. The others are excused as they become expert. Those 
who cannot swim at all, and they form the large majority, are taken 
in hand by the swimming master. 

They are told that the body, being full of air, will float just as an 
empty bottle does; that the nose is like the spout of the bottle ; it 
is all that it is necessary to keep out of the water when open; the 
mouth being kept closed, as is recommended for all other physical 
exercises. That when they wish to dive, they must cork up the 
bottle, or rather, hold their breath. That in swimming, the body 
must be at perfect ease, and they must not attempt to keep more 
than the nose out of water. 

The extra buoyancy of the body depends on the difference be- 
tween the weight of the water displaced and the body displacing it. 
Of course any part of the body which is not displacing water has to 
be carried as dead weight. The extra buoyancy of an ordinary 
sized man's body is about eleven pounds. The weight of the head 



is from eight to nine pounds. If they try to push the head up out 
of water they destroy the easy position of the body, and lose 
the extra buoyancy. A stout person has greater extra buoyancy 
than a thin one. 

Drowning is caused by allowing the water to replace the air in 
the body; this causes the body to become heavier than an equal 
volume of water, and therefore to sink. 

The point where a body sinks is generally marked by air bubbles. 
After sinking the first time, the body sometimes rises to the 
surface again. This has been known to be repeated even a second 
time. 

Men are drowned by raising their arms above water, the unbuoyed 
weight of which depresses the head. Other animals have neither 
notion nor ability to act in a similar manner, and therefore swim 
naturally. When a man falls into deep water, he will rise to the 
surface, and will continue there if he does not elevate his hands. If 
he moves his hands under the water in any way he pleases, his head 
will rise so high as to allow him free liberty to breathe ; and if he 
will use his legs as in the act of walking (or rather of walking up- 
stairs), his shoulders will rise above the water, so that he may use 
the less exertion with his hands, or apply them to other purposes. 

The general principles of swimming having been given, the pupil 
is placed in a tank, about 70 ft. by 15, shelving from about 1 ft. to 
10. In order that the tank may be used in winter, it is furnished 
with a system of steam pipes for heating the water. The pupil is 
made to lie out in the shallow water, and shown how to strike out. 
He is then put into a swimming belt; this is a contrivance consist- 
ing of a pole, to the end of which is attached a line; at the end of 
this line is a belt; this belt passes under each arm and across the 
chest. The pupil lying in the water is told to strike out. The 
instructor, supporting him with the pole, walks along at the side of 
the tank; as soon as he sees that the boy is doing well, he gradually 
slacks down the pole, which the pupil cannot see, as it is behind him, 
and cannot feel because he is water-borne. When this point is reached, 
the instructor informs him that he is swimming. If he gets 
frightened the instructor supports him again; if not, the ice is 
broken, and no further trouble is experienced. 

Once having learned to swim, learn to float, and also to swim on 



your back; by this means you can rest yourself, and thus remain in 
the water a long time. Never remain in from choice, however, after 
your body begins to feel chilly. 

Next learn to swim without using your arms; you have then 
those members at liberty to assist others. 

Never jump in after a person who has fallen into the water unless 
you are certain that you can be of assistance to him. There are 
instances of apparently drowning persons rescuing their would-be 
preservers. 

If a person falls overboard and cannot help himself, go to his 
assistance if you can; if he can help himself, remain where you can 
assist him out of the water. If you determine to go in, divest 
yourself of as much of your clothing as possible, especially your 
shoes. It will be well to mention here that if you are going where 
you are liable to get into the water, you should have your shoes 
ready to kick off, or better still, wear low ones. 

Having reached the person in danger, if he is not cool and col- 
lected, do not approach him so that he can seize you, or he may 
drag you down with him; either let him exhaust himself, or 
approach him from the rear, and get him by the hair, or, if he is 
unprovided with that valuable article, under the chin. Get him on 
his back, placing yourself in the same position behind him, support- 
ing his head with your hand; strike out for the shore, or wait for 
other assistance; in this way you can save two or more persons if 
they are cool subjects. With a very unruly person it is sometimes 
necessary, for their own good, to use violence; strike them so that 
they may become insensible. An insensible body, when not filled 
with water, is very easily handled. 

Where a person has gone down, be guided by the bubbles if you 
cannot see him. Keep your eyes open, and approach him just as 
directed for surface work. 



AIDS TO PERSONAL EFFORTS. 

As aids to swimmers, and supports to persons unacquainted with 
that exercise, thousands of different life-preservers and jackets have 
been invented. 

The best authorities all prefer the cork jacket; rubber and metal 



6 



are liable to be worn, corroded or punctured, and, therefore, as they 
are intended to hold air, become useless. Cork is always the same in 
all climates, and will stand any amount of rough usage. There are 
many forms of cork jackets or belts, all more or less good. 

For a passenger jacket, the requisites are: as much displacement 
as possible, with a correspondingly small amount of weight. Sup- 
pose that a man has an extra buoyancy of ten pounds, and wears a 
life preserver of a like weight, which only displaces when sub- 
merged ten pounds of water, of course he would get no support 
from it. If, on the contrary, he had one which weighed only one 
pound, and displaced, when submerged ten pounds, he would have 
gained nine pounds of extra buoyancy. They should be fitted with 
a simple system of webbing straps, not leather, and should tie, not 
buckle. They should be kept, well in view, in places where they 
can be reached at any time by passengers. In steamers, where pas- 
sengers sleep, there should always be one jacket near each bunk, 
besides those on deck. In conspicuous places, near where they are 
kept, should be printed notices, with drawings, telling and showing 
how they are to be used, and advising the passenger to examine 
them closely, and even to put them on, to tie the straps, to fit them, 
and become thoroughly familiar with them. The straps should 
always be securely sewed to the jacket,so that they cannot be pulled 
off or lost. The jacket should be worn just under the arms, these 
latter thrust through the armholes or suspenders. They should be 
tied in front of the body; in this position they serve to keep the nose 
and mouth out of water. Many bodies have been recovered with 
the preserver about the waist, and, in some cases, about the legs. 

Every boat that leaves a ship, or the shore, on service which is 
not perfectly safe, should have enough life preservers for its crew 
and passengers. At sea, these should be kept in the boats; these 
jackets should always be put on. In practice, however, it has 
generally been found that men pulling take them off, because they 
interfere with the arm, forcing it to take a position to which they 
are unaccustomed in rowing; to obviate this I have designed a 
jacket, which has been made by Mr. W. H. Godfrey, of this city, 
furnisher to the Navy and Life-saving Service. This gentleman has 
also kindly lent me the other jackets which I have shown you. A 
coat life-preserver made of deer's hair has been lent me by Colonel 



JOURNAL, VOL. X1,AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 




Fig, 1. MAN SWIMMING WITH HAMMOCK. 

Fig. 2. CORK LIFE PRESERVER. 

Fig. 3. PROPER WAY OF WEARING LIFE PRESERVER. 

Fig. 4. MAN SWIMMING WITH LIFE PRESERVER. 



Bryson. This coat, which may be worn as an over or watch coat, 
will support with ease three persons. 

Although, on general principles, rubber is not a good material 
for life saving apparatus ; still the inflatable sleeves and collar of 
Capt. Ormsbee are so admirably adapted for life saving purposes 
that I cannot help mentioning them. These would be particularly 
useful as the private property of travelers, or for use on our 
beaches in the bathing season. 

Merriman's life dress might also be useful if supplied in small 
numbers, to be worn by seamen in taking a line ashore. 
In the Revised Statutes of the United States we find : 
" Sec. 4482. Every steam-vessel carrying passengers shall also be 
provided with a good life-preserver, made of suitable material, for 
every cabin passenger for which she shall have accommodation, and 
also a good life-preserver or float for each deck or other class pas- 
senger which the inspector's certificate shall allow her to carry, in- 
cluding the officers and crew ; which life-preservers or floats shall 
be kept in convenient and accessible places on such vessel, in readi- 
ness for immediate use in case of accident. " 
And again : 

" Sec. 4484. Every steamer navigating the ocean, or any lake, bay, 
or sound of the United States, shall be provided with such numbers 
of life-preservers as will best secure the safety of all persons onboard 
such vessel in case of disaster." 

How these laws are actually carried out, can be seen by any per- 
son who travels as far as Brooklyn or Jersey City. The life-pre- 
servers are on board, but where are they ? Strapped up under the 
cabin ceiling, where no one but a giant could possibly reach them, 
or stuck under the seats, where none but an expert would notice 
them. In river steamers they are generally stowed in boxes where 
no one unacquainted with the fact could ever find them. In ocean 
steamers they are often kept in some out-of-the way locker. In 
men-of-war the small number allowed can usually be found in the 
furthest corner of the yeoman's store-room. 

Another, and most effective means of supporting the body in the 
water, is the adaptation of the bed and other cushions for use as 
life-preservers. This idea would furnish economical owners with 
life-preservers, where they had such contrivances, without additional 



8 



expense. It would economize space, always a coveted article aboard 
ship. By their superior size and greater buoyancy, they would sup- 
port a person in the water better than a jacket. 

Every person on board must be provided with a bed of some kind, 
whether it be the hammock of the sailor or the bunk of the passen- 
ger and officer. 

For years officers in our own and the English service have been 
agitating this subject. The great difficulty which all workers in 
this as well as in all other life-preserving projects have had to en- 
counter, is the unwillingness of those who are in safety on shore to 
provide for the dangers to which they themselves or others may be 
exposed at sea. The originator of the idea was probably Rear Admiral 
Ryder, R. N. In our country, Mr. R. B. Forbes has been indefatig- 
able in urging its adoption, and I would state that Mr. Forbes is 
and has been one of our most zealous workers. To his energy and 
perseverance many persons owe their lives to-day. Commander 
Cyprian Bridge, R. N., found by experiment that the sailors' ham- 
mock, carefully lashed, supported seven men in the water for sev- 
eral minutes — four men for almost an hour. Captain Arthur Wilms- 
hurst, R. N"., found that a hammock with a six-pound shot sus- 
pended from one end — a most trying test — floated for five minutes. 
The buoyancy of the hammocks was found to be at first 114 lbs. 
The same shot suspended from the centre was supported nine min- 
utes. The ticking was then oiled, and the hammock supported the 
weight two and a half hours. 

It can readily be imagined that a hammock capable of thus sup- 
porting a dead weight would be of great assistance to a man. Had 
this fact been known to the officers of many of the men-of-war 
which have sunk suddenly, the loss of life would have been much 
smaller. 

By filling the mattress with cork shavings, which are very cheap, 
generally being thrown away, additional buoyancy may be obtained. 
A mattress six feet by four, stuffed with this material, weighed 20 
lbs.; its buoyancy was sufficient to support eighty pounds, dead 
weight, indefinitely. The cost was one-half that of a hair one. A mat- 
tress stuffed with granulated cork, 5 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 10 in., and 3 in. 
deep (hammock size), weighing thirteen pounds and having a buoy- 
ancy of sixty pounds, is now issued to the men of the Royal Navy. 



Mr. Forbes writes that a cotton canvas hammock, containing a mat- 
tress stuffed with cork shavings, tested by Lieut.-Cmdr. O'Neil, U. S. 
N., sustained sixty-two pounds one hour and five minutes, and thirty- 
two pounds indefinitely. The same hammock, placed in a closely 
woven water-proofed cotton canvas bag, had its buoyancy increased 
about four times. Twenty hammocks thus provided, lashed to- 
gether with a frame-work of spars, would support a 2,000 pound 
anchor, and one hundred would carry the heaviest anchor used in the 
navy. 

Cocoa fibre has been used as a filling, but I have been unable to 
obtain any reliable information in regard to it. 

Deer's hair, on account of its extreme lightness and great dis- 
placement, is also used. 

The samples which I have are furnished by Col. Bryson, of the 
Deer Hair Manufacturing Company. The mattress, which weighs 
only 5 lbs., is very buoyant. This style of mattress has been used 
in the Government and Merchant services for several years with 
excellent results. 

A mattress stuffed with felt has just been adopted by the 
Navy Department and issued for trial. It has also been approved 
and recommended by a board ordered by the Chief of the Steam- 
boat Inspection Service. This is a step in the right direction, and 
could steamship companies be made to see that their own interests 
would be advanced by providing such means, and advertising it, 
just as hotels have provided fire-escapes and apparatus, a great stride 
would have been taken. 

This mattress is invented and made by Mr. H. D. Ostermoor, of 
this city. The board of naval officers who tested it at Washington 
report that " The mattress consists of several sheets or thicknesses 
of raw cotton, which had been subjected to a great heat, to remove 
all possible trace of vegetable oils, and then while under pressure to 
a process which renders the fibres impervious to water or dampness." 

A bunk mattress of this kind supported one man weighing 150 
pounds, who stood upon it, and a dead weight of fifty pounds of 
iron, without sinking enough to wet its upper side. It supported two 
such men, only wetting the soles of their shoes. After twenty-four 
hours' floating, the ticking having become saturated, the inside was 
examined and found to be totally untouched by moisture — the ex- 



10 



treme outer fibres of the outer sheets being barely touched by the 
dampness. Heavy weights were then used to sink it, and it re- 
mained under water forty-eight hours ; upon being examined at the 
end of this time it was found that the moisture had penetrated be- 
tween the sheets, the interior of the sheets themselves being entirely 
free from dampness. The mattress was then dried, when the usual 
softness and springiness was observed to return to the material. So 
well pleased were the board with the comfort and cheapness of the 
mattress, that they recommended it even for shore use. They 
have, however, already been used for a long time on shore, and even 
afloat. Alexandre's New York, Havana and Mexican Mail Steam- 
ship Line has used them for two years. Pullman uses them in his 
sleeping-cars, and uses the material for stuffing the cushions of his 
palace cars, and for the cars of the Metropolitan Elevated Railroad. 
They are used in many of the Hospitals and Public Institutions. All 
who have used them testify in highest terms as to their softness, 
their not lumping, and their cleanliness — there being no animal oil 
or fat in them. 

The objection to mattresses stuffed with cork is their hardness, 
and sogginess after being in the water for some time. To those 
with waterproof covers, their smell. 

A felt-stuffed pillow weighing three and a half pounds, on 
which was placed thirty pounds of iron, is reported by the steam- 
boat inspectors to have floated eight days. 

A chair cushion would therefore support a man in the water with 
the greatest ease. 

A mattress such as is used in the bunks of vessels fitted, at my 
proposition, with handles or beckets round the sides, would support 
several persons in the water. One person may lie on the mattress; 
the straps being secured over the body prevent a possibility of roll- 
ing off. This would be most valuable for children, women, and per- 
sons injured during the accident. The handles of one side and one 
end are provided with snap hooks, so that a number of mattresses 
may be secured together, to form a raft, which could be improved 
by the addition of spars and a lashing. The cushions are also to be 
fitted with handles, the smaller ones being fitted with straps, so that 
they may be converted into life-jackets. The mattresses intended for 



JOURNAL, VOL. Xl,AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 



Fig. i. 





Fig 3. 




Fi,j. I. FELT BUNK MATTRESS FITTED WITH HANDLES AND HOOKS. 

Fig. 2. FELT HAMMOCK MATTRESS FITTED WITH STRAPS AS LIFE PRESERVERS 

Fig 3 DEER HAIR MATTRESS, WITH END FITTED AS A LIFE PRESERVER, 



11 



hammocks, or as second mattresses in bunks, are fitted with straps 
and loops, so that they may be doubled over and form life-jackets. 

When a lashed hammock is to be used as a life preserver, which 
would occur when a man-of-war was sinking in the day-time, the 
clews are to be brought together and secured. This forms a ring- 
buoy, which is placed around the body, under the arms. 

In order that life-saving appliances may be useful in sudden emer- 
gencies, they should be numerous, so that in some form they may be 
at hand in every part of the vessel likely to be inhabited by the 
crew and passengers. Notices should be posted, telling what may be 
used; it is not only necessary to have them about, but attention 
must be called to them. In speaking of this with a steamship man, 
he objected, on the ground that if too many precautions were taken, 
and too much publicity given to such things, they would frighten 
away travelers. Does the knowledge that one is provided with a 
good fire-escape, to get out of a house in case of fire, prevent one 
from going there to live ? I think, on the contrary, that wise trav- 
elers would be attracted by such precautions. The first duty of a 
traveler embarking, if only to cross the river, should be to look 
about for them ; if he does not see them he should insist upon the 
employees showing them to him ; if he does not succeed he had 
better go ashore and patronize some other line. 

If people would only be as anxious and pertinacious about their 
safety as they are about their comfort, there would be no need of 
laws enforcing the carrying of life appliances; companies and 
owners, in order to secure crews and passengers, would be forced in 
competition to adopt them. 

A person who is going to travel sometimes goes months before- 
hand to engage a good state-room, and then pays the steward a 
large fee for a good seat at the table. What does he do towards 
his preservation ? Does he insist upon being shown a certified plan 
of the vessel, displaying her collision bulkheads, and a list of her 
fire and life-saving appliances ? 

Does he insist upon the agent's marking on his ticket what boat 
he is to go in, or what raft he is to look to for safety, taking care 
to find out how many others are detailed for the same conveyance, 
and what its capacity really is ? 



12 



Does lie ask whether the mattresses are buoyant, and whether life 
preservers are provided at hand, and not stowed away below ? 

Does he, when he goes aboard, go on deck and find out where the 
boat or raft is, and how he is to get to it day or night ; how he can 
assist in getting it out, or lowering it ; whether it contains oars, life 
belts, provisions, and water ; if not, where they are kept; whether 
an officer and crew are detailed for it ? 

Does he go down to his room, examine his mattress, and find out 
how it works ; take down his life-preserver ; read the instructions ; 
put it on, and fit the straps to suit his size, making himself familiar 
with it, so that he can put it on in the dark ? 

Not a bit of it ; 999 look out for their seats at table, see what 
flowers or delicacies their friends have sent, get their chairs all 
right, and then lounge about until, mayhap, father Neptune causes 
them to bow to him. When the hour of danger comes, it is too 
late to do what might have made them then cool, self-possessed, and 
self-reliant. 

If men would not ship in vessels where they are not provided 
with proper appliances, owners would be forced to spend a few hun- 
dred dollars, and provide them. 

If it is impossible to provide these facilities without augmenting 
the receipts, no sensible traveler, however, would growl at paying a 
dollar or two more to insure his life. 

There are many lines of steamers running between this port and 
Europe, all more or less poorly provided. Public opinion should 
force them to do better. There is one line which unites us to a 
great sister Republic which has been unfortunate, and which, hav- 
ing profited by its experience, is probably the best provided to-day. 
There is another line which, for a long series of years, by good sea- 
manship and good luck, has never had an accident. Are they as 
well provided ? Many of you, who have traveled intelligently, can 
probably answer this question. 

Another life-saving contrivance is what is called the life buoy, 
intended to be dropped or thrown to a person in the water by those 
on board. The larger forms are carried over the stern. They are 
dropped by some mechanical contrivance. For day work they are 
sometimes provided with little red flags, so that they may be the 
more readily seen. At night they are distinguished by a light of 



13 



some kind. In our service we use portfire for this light ; this has to 
be lit by a percussion lock and cap, which is fired as the buoy is 
dropped ; this sometimes misses, and the water sometimes extin- 
guishes the light. The French Government has adopted the Silas 
apparatus. The light in this is caused by the ignition of the gas of 
phosphurated calcium. Phosphurated calcium, which is common 
chalk, acted upon when at great heat by the fumes of heated phos- 
phorus. The product, which is brown in color, and in lumps of the 
shape into which the chalk was broken, when thrown into water, or 
acted upon by great dampness, gives off a gas which ignites with a 
brilliant flame on combining with the air. On account of this pecu- 
liar quality, it must be kept in an air-tight case, which has been 
previously thoroughly dried ; in this state it is harmless. For use, 
the receiver, which is of glass generally, is placed in a tube placed 
vertically through the centre of the float; this tube is open at either 
end. As the buoy drops a plunger is released, which opens the 
receiver ; the water, coming up through one end of the tube, acts 
upon the calcium, liberating the gas, which, passing up through 
the tube, and escaping through the upper ends, unites 
with the air and becomes inflamed. Of course, water 
will not extinguish this light. A person dropping a buoy to 
one who has fallen overboard from forward, should wait until he is 
as near to him as possible. When the person is already astern, let 
the buoy go as quickly as possible. If the buoy is too far from the 
person, it may never be reached by him. The wind or current also 
act sometimes to carry it away from him. Mr. Forbes reports very 
excellent results in preventing this by attaching to each buoy a little 
canvas cone, which acts as a drag or sea anchor. About the decks 
there should be a number of ring buoys, which a cool person may 
pitch almost into the hands of a person overboard. When these 
are not at hand, gratings, chairs, or any floatable object should be 
used. 

The ring buoy is another form, and should always be carried in 
considerable numbers about the decks. The two which I have here 
this evening are rather large ones. One is of granulated cork, very 
heavy, and liable to become water-soaked ; the other of deer's hair, 
very light and buoyant. 

Few small life-saving contrivances are intended to support the 



14 



whole dead weight of the body; they are intended to be held on to. 
Never attempt to climb on top of a life-buoy, for instance ; it will 
support you as long as you keep your body submerged. 

The following directions for restoring the apparently drowned are 
from the latest instructions issued by our Life Saving Service; they 
are those of Dr. Howard. 

Where you can do so, send immediately for a regular medical 
practitioner. 

Rule I. — Arouse the Patient. — Unless in danger of freezing, do 
not move the patient, but instantly expose the face to a current of 
fresh air, wipe dry the mouth and nostrils, rip the clothing, so as to 
expose the chest and waist, and give two or three quick smarting 
slaps on the stomach and chest with the open hand. If the patient 
does not revive, proceed thus : 

Rule II. — To Draw off Water, <bc, from the /Stomach and 
Chest. — If the jaws are clenched, separate them, and keep the mouth 
open by placing between the teeth a cork, or small bit of wood ; 
turn the patient on the face, a large bundle of tightlv rolled cloth- 
ing being placed beneath the stomach, and press heavily over it for 
half a minute, or so long as fluids flow freely from the mouth. 

Rule III. — To Produce Breathing. — Clear the mouth and throat 
of mucus by introducing into the throat the corner of a handker- 
chief wrapped closely around the forefinger ; turn the patient on 
the back, the roll of clothing being so placed as to raise the pit of 
the stomach above the level of any other portion of the body. If 
there be another person present, let him, with a piece of dry cloth, 
hold the tip of the tongue out of one corner of the mouth (this pre- 
vents the tongue from pulling back and obstructing the windpipe), 
and with the other hand grasp both wrists, and keep the arms forci- 
bly stretched back above the head, thereby increasing the promi- 
nence of the ribs, which tends to enlarge the chest. The two last- 
named positions are not, however, essential to success. Kneel beside 
or astride the patient's hips, and with the balls of the thumbs rest- 
ing on either side of the pit of the stomach, let the fingers fall into 
the grooves between the short ribs, so as to afford the best grasp of 
the waist. Now, using your knees as a pivot, throw all your weight 
forward on your hands, and at the same time squeeze the waist 
between them, as if you wished to force everything in the chest 



JOURNAL, VOL. XLAMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 

Fig. 1. 

ic 

Fig. 3. 




Tig. 1. SILAS LIFE BUOY. 

Fig 2.. RING BUOY. 

Fig, 3. SHOWING EJECTION OF WATER FROM BODY. 

Fig 4. SHOWING METHOD OF RESTORING RESPIRATION. 



15 



upward out of the mouth ; deepen the pressure while you can count 
slowly one, two, three ; then suddenly let go with a final push, 
which springs you back on your first kneeling position. Remain 
erect on your knees while you can count one, two, three ; then 
repeat the same motions as before, at a rate gradually increased 
from four or five to fifteen times in a minute, and continue thus this 
bellows movement, with the same regularity that is observable in 
the natural motions of breathing which you are imitating. If natu- 
ral breathing be not restored after a trial of the bellows movement 
for three or four minutes, then, without interrupting the artificial 
respiration, turn the patient a second time on the stomach, as 
directed in Rule II, rolling the body in the opposite direction from 
that in which it was first turned, for the purpose of freeing the air 
passages from any remaining water. Continue the artificial respira- 
tion from one to four hours, or until the patient breathes; and for a 
while after the appearance of returning life, carefully aid the first 
short gasps until deepened into full breaths. Continue the drying 
and rubbing, which should have been unceasingly practised from 
the beginning, taking care not to interfere with the means employed 
to produce breathing. Thus, the limbs of the patient should be 
rubbed, always in an upward direction towards the body, with firm 
grasping pressure and energy, using the bare hands, dry flannels or 
handkerchiefs, and continuing the friction under the blankets, or 
over the dry clothing. The warmth of the body can also be pro- 
moted by the application of hot flannels to the stomach and arm- 
pits, bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, stones, &c, to 
the limbs and soles of the feet. 

Rule IV. — After- Treatment. — Externally: As soon as breathing 
is established, let the patient be stripped of all wet clothing, 
wrapped in blankets only, put to bed comfortably warm, but with 
a free circulation of fresh air, and left to perfect rest. Internally : 
Give a little brandy and hot water, or other stimulant at hand, 
every ten or fifteen minutes during the first hour, and as often 
thereafter as may seem expedient. Later manifestations: After 
reaction is fully established there is great danger of congestion of 
the lungs, and if perfect rest is not maintained for at least forty- 
eight hours, it sometimes occurs that the patient is seized with great 
difficulty of breathing, and death is liable to follow unless imme- 



16 



diate relief is afforded. In such cases apply a large mustard plaster 
over the breast. If the patient gasps for breath before the mustard 
takes effect, assist the breathing by carefully repeating the artificial 
respiration. 

An eminent authority, Dr. Labordette, the Supervising Surgeon 
of the Hospital of Lisieux, in France, appears to have established 
the fact that the clenching of the jaws and semi-contraction of the 
fingers, which have hitherto been considered signs of death, are, in 
fact, evidences of remaining vitality. After numerous experiments 
with apparently drowned persons, and also with animals, he con- 
cludes that these are only signs accompanying the first stage of suf- 
focation by drowning, the jaws and hands becoming relaxed when 
death ensues (the " rigor mortis " occurs later after the temporary 
relaxation here referred to). This being so, the mere clenching of 
the jaws and semi-contraction of the hands must not be considered 
as reasons for the discontinuance of efforts to save life, but should 
serve as a stimulant to vigorous and prolonged efforts to quicken 
vitality. Persons engaged in the task of resuscitation are, there- 
fore, earnestly desired to take hope and encouragement for the life 
of the sufferer from the signs above referred to, and to continue 
their endeavors accordingly. In a number of cases Dr. Labordette 
restored to life persons whose jaws were so firmly clenched that, to 
aid respiration, their teeth had to be forced apart with iron instru- 
ments. 

Directions for restoring the apparently drowned should be legibly 
printed, with accompanying plates, and posted in every steamer, 
ferry-house, and public building near the water, on wharves and 
bridges — in fact, everywhere — that they might be made useful either 
to the idler, or the person desiring to refer to them. In England 
the Royal Humane Society has adopted this device ; why cannot 
our own Life Saving Benevolent Society do the same ? 

AIDS TO COMBINED EFFORTS. 

Under this head we will class all the life-preservers coming 
between the personal float and the ship, whether used from the 
shore or from vessels. Ordinary pulling boats are generally, except 
in fine weather, of little use in saving life. They are too often, 



17 



especially in the navy, built for speed instead of safety. A boat, to 
be of use in bad weather, or in approaching a rock, or surf bound 
shore, should be fitted so as to be easily gotten out, or lowered, very 
buoyant, unupsetable, unsinkable, and easy to be handled and 
beached. 

For ordinary boats, of which by-the-bye it would be almost impos- 
sible to carry enough to safely transport all the passengers and 
crew of large vessels, in selecting a lowering apparatus, we have to 
be governed to a certain extent by other necessary qualities. A sea- 
going vessel cannot carry her boats rigged out, as they would cer- 
tainly be carried away in anything like a bad sea. In a vessel roll- 
ing very badly, if they were not carried away, by filling with water 
they might prevent the vessel from righting. Some ships cannot 
even carry their boats on the rail, but have to take them inboard. 
In coming alongside of other vessels, or docks, it is necessary that 
the boats should be rigged in. In most vessels this is done by first 
hoisting the boat by means of davits, or derricks. If the boat is to 
come inboard, or on the rail, these are turned, and the boat lowered 
into chocks, or into a cradle. So far the operation is of no import- 
ance, as there is no hurry, and plenty of men and mechanical con- 
trivances are at hand. When, however, the boat has to be gotten 
out, its whole weight has generally to be raised out of the chocks, 
or cradle, under the most disadvantageous circumstances. It has 
then to be turned outboard, quite a complicated manoeuvre, and 
lowered with great care and at great risk of being dashed to pieces 
against the side, or capsized before the tackles are unhooked. In 
order to obviate all these difficulties, it is necessary to have a boat 
lowering apparatus, and then a boat detaching one. 

There are many different forms of both of these, but I am sorry 
to say that even the best are more often found in books and models 
than in actual practice. They are expensive, or at least more so 
than nothing — this is enough to condemn them. 

Mr. Forbes has sent me a contrivance which he recommends most 
highly, and which, I should judge, must be very excellent, and as 
cheap as an ordinary davit. There are two upright stanchions built 
into the rail; hinged to these, at the height of the deck, are two 
pieces which act as the arms of derricks. The upper ends are con- 
nected by a fore and aft piece; on this fore and aft piece, which also 



18 



acts as a strong back for the boat, are the tackles. To prevent this 
arm from going out too far when out, or coming in too far when in, 
there is a length of chain permanently attached to the head of the 
stanchion. To prevent the arm from coming in when out, and 
going out when in, there is a rigid hook bar. A chain pennant, to 
the end of which a tackle is fitted, is used to bring the arm to a ver- 
tical position, and lower it either in or out. The important feature 
is, that when in the boat can be rigged out by being pushed upon, 
no raising being necessary. The tackles, when the boat is hoisted, 
are replaced by single ropes, so that the boat can be easily lowered. 
The boat-detaching apparatus of Ensign Bradley A. Fiske, U. S. N., 
adopted for use in the navy, works very well. The object of a 
detacher is, to let go both ends of the boat at once as she approaches 
the water; this must be done by one person, placed at some central 
point. It may even be necessary, when the ship is rolling heavily, 
to let go half way down, to prevent being smashed against the side. 
A ship's boats should be, if possible, of the life-boat type ; if they 
are not, they should at least be fitted with air tanks under the 
thwarts, or cork paddings round the rail outside. The rudders 
should always be kept shipped. An oar is preferable to a rudder, if 
properly shipped, when quick work is to be done. There are many 
different types of life-boat, from the large steam ones used by the 
English and French to the small, very small, zinc ones used aboard 
our river craft. All are more or less good. They are made as light 
as possible, are given great displacement, and consequently buoy- 
ancy. They are made self -bailing, by being provided with valves 
in their bottoms, or even by having the bottoms almost entirely 
open to the sea. Boats for pulling, quick handling, and beaching, 
should be fitted with centre-boards, and without keels. 

As we have stated, it is almost impossible for a large vessel to 
carry enough boats for all the people she may have on board. Other 
contrivances must be at hand in the way of rafts. The Rider life 
raft is the one which seems best to meet the requirements of the 
case. These have been adopted in our service. The model is fur- 
nished by the present makers to the navy, the " Gondola Life-boat 
and Raft Company." The advantage of this contrivance is, that it 
affords a very large amount of buoyancy when submerged. It is 
very light, and when not inflated takes up but little room, a coveted 



JOURNAL, VOL. XI, AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 

Fig.1 




*** 







Fig. 3. 







£. vtfU** *MA3m<& 



Fig. 1. SIDE VIEW OF FORBES' DAVITS. ■ 
Fig. 2. END VIEW OF FORBES' DAVITS. 
Fig. 3. FISKE'S DETACHING APPARATUS. 



19 



article aboard ship. Many of these can be carried in the space 
required for one boat. They can be put on top of deck-houses, 
lashed under forecastles and bridges. They are quickly fitted for 
use, and can be launched from the deck without difficulty, on 
account of their lightness. Afloat, they carry a large number of 
people, are easily handled, and can be taken through a surf with all 
the safety of a life-boat. 

Admiral Ammen, who recently addressed this society on the sub- 
ject of the Isthmus Surveys, is the inventor of a bolsa very similar 
in form to the rubber one, but with the floats made up of staves, 
like a barrel. In the water it is excellent, but it does not stow as 
well aboard ship. 

In making rafts, hammocks or mattresses, if made available by 
some of the methods already suggested, would be of the greatest 
utility. 

It would also be important to have all the doors and other mov- 
able woodwork given extra buoyancy by having air boxes fitted in 
the panels. 

It has been suggested that the decks of houses and bridges should 
be fitted with air boxes between the beams, and attached to the 
vessel by heavy keys, which could be knocked away in an emer- 
gency with mauls, which should be kept at hand. Such an arrange- 
ment, if it did not interfere with the solidity of the ship itself, 
might save many valuable lives. 

The collapsible boats of the Rev. E. L. Berthon, an English cler- 
gyman, have been adopted by the British Government. They are 
of canvas fitted over a frame, which opens or shuts something like 
an umbrella, thus allowing a large number to be carried without 
occupying much space. 

On most of our coasts the life-saving crews prefer to use boats 
built like the fishing boats which they are accustomed to, and 
as actual experiments have proved that they are best, owing to the 
peculiar shallowness of water, the long distances to be traveled 
before reaching the scene of action, and the necessity of taking on 
nearly raw crews every winter, this form has been adopted. 

The crew of a vessel stranded should only leave her in their own 
boats as a last resort. They should establish the line communica- 
tion, to be referred to hereafter, or wait for the boat from the shore. 



20 



Few sailors are good surfmen ; in fact, it is a profession by itself. 
Not being surfmen, they cannot prevent their boats being upset or 
pitch-poled (thrown end over end) when they get in the surf. If 
they do have to use their boats, they must anchor outside of the 
surf and get up a line communication from there. If it is absolutely 
necessary to go through the surf, a flexible raft made of hammocks 
or mattresses, which will bend to the action of the wave and not 
pitch-pole or capsize, will be found much safer than a boat. We 
will not attempt here to give the proper method of handling a boat 
in the surf. 



SHIPS. 

The dangers to which ships are usually subjected are : burning 
colliding, upsetting and stranding. Much can be done to protect 
the ship against all of these dangers, and it should be the traveler's 
duty to assure himself, before engaging passage, that all these pre- 
cautions have been taken. This could easily be shown by a sworn 
statement and plans, with a heavy penalty attached to deception. 
At present the competition is so great between companies that they 
have to do everything as cheaply as possible. There is not to-day 
one single vessel sailing or steaming from this port or any other 
which is properly provided. If a law were passed, either by consti- 
tuted authority or the good sense of the traveling public, they 
would all start fair in the race for safety. We see references 
made to water-tight compartments and collision bulkheads. They 
do not exist, in practice, any more than we can call the walls of this 
room water-tight. Some of the vessels are provided with partitions, 
which might be made water-tight, but not at the moment when 
they are needed. To be of use, they must be so beforehand. There 
must not be a single opening in them below the water-line, and even 
for some distance above it, as the line of floatation would be raised, 
by the filling of one of the compartments, to a considerable 
extent. A very small hole, such as a sluice-valve, takes from a 
partition any claim to be called water-tight. Any one who has 
studied hydrostatics knows what a quantity of water can pass 
through a small orifice in a short space of time. Compartments 
must be absolutely water-tight. They must be several stories high, 






JOURNAL, VOL. X|,AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 

Fig. 1. 



fa/ / , > t-^ 


-»»■■ 






--g-aa 


Tf_ 






f I I 


H-r- 


(r- 




— \- 


Limjuiijtt 


I 


31 


J a g i i i — 


fc 


^ f 


z& 




Fig. 2. 

Fig. 3. 
Fig. 4. 



THE LATEST ARRANGEMENT OF WATER TIGHT BULK HEADS. 

EFFECT OF BULK HEADS NOT BEING HIGH ENOUGH, WHEN WATER 

LINE IS RAISED BY A COMPARTMENT FILLING. 
NECESSITY OF SMALL COMPARTMENTS AT EXTREMITIES. 
BENEFIT OF HORIZONTAL PARTITIONS. 



21 



and the decks or floors of these stories must be absolutely water and 
air-tight. The bottoms must be double. The whole under water, 
and up to at least six feet above the water, part of a ship, must be 
like a honeycomb. The bulkheads must run fore and aft as well as 
athwart ship. The engine and boiler-rooms must be in compart- 
ments as well as the rest of the ship. This can easily be done if it 
must be done. The shafts can be made to work through water- 
tight bearings through the partitions, just as they do in the 
stern-post. The very part of the ship occupied now by an immense 
open space, is the one which we should most subdivide. The for- 
ward compartments should be very small, so as not to lift the screw 
and rudder out of the water when they filled. The coal should be 
stowed well up on both sides of the engines and boilers to protect 
them, and also to be at hand, so that no excuse could be made of 
difficulty of getting at it on account of the bulkheads. Each com- 
partment [should have a separate pump, and each of these pumps 
should be fitted to work for water or air. None of the engines for 
working these pumps should be placed down in the engine-room 
where a fire might cut them off. Each compartment should be 
fitted with an electric fire alarm, and if possible with an automatic 
extinguisher. Cargo should all be packed in waterproof cases, or, 
better still, in barrels. The compartments being full of such pack- 
ages would admit but little water. What did come in could be 
forced out by turning on the air-pump. The steering gear of all 
ships should be worked by steam and hand, and the helmsman 
placed forward close to the officer of the deck, who should be there 
also. A second apparatus should be placed aft in case of accident. 
The officer of the watch should be able to stop the engines himself 
without leaving the bridge. This can be done by electricity, and 
has been worked successfully aboard a French man-of-war. There 
should be an ample supply of fire extinguishers, buckets and axes 
always at hand. There should be permanent steam or water pipes such 
as are fitted in hotels and large buildings, by which steam or water 
could be sent to every part of the ship by syphon or other pumps. 
Each apartment should be provided with a tap to this pipe, and a 
piece of hose long enough to reach any part of it. 

In case of meeting a vessel at sea, in the daytime, there is gener- 
ally but little danger of collision, but collisions have occurred ; 



22 



therefore we must guard against them. The great cause of collision 
is a want of knowledge of what the other ship is doing or going to 
do. In other words, how she has her helm. This could easily be 
remedied by having a semaphore at the mainmast head, similar to 
those used on railroads ; this to be connected automatically with 
the steering wheel. As port is always designated by red (let us 
suppose because port wine is of a reddish color) and starboard by 
green, when the helm was put to port, the red arm would rise in 
proportion to the angle of the rudder ; when the helm was amid- 
ships neither arm would be up ; when the helm was put to star- 
board the green arm would rise. In this way, on any side, the posi- 
tion of the helm could be seen. 

At night lights might be attached to these arms, or the officer of 
the watch might carry in his starboard and port pockets a green 
and a red signal, which he could burn in the same way. It was 
ordered at one time by the English Board of Trade that this light 
system should be adopted in the following manner : That a light of 
the color of the side to which the helm was put should be shown on 
deck on approaching, or a little ways up the rigging of a vessel. A 
vessel always carries, or should always carry, at night (some owners 
and captains are so mean that they attempt even to evade this law, 
by not carrying their lights when they are clear of the harbor 
authorities — men-of-war should be empowered to capture every 
vessel found without lights), on the starboard side, well forward, a 
green light, so protected that it cannot be seen abaft the beam ; on 
the port side, a red light. A steamer carries at her foremast head a 
white light. In practice, when the helm signal was exhibited, con- 
fusion arose, because all the colored lights were so nearly on a line. 
This caused the order to be rescinded. I propose that the lights 
carried by the officer of the watch shall be of the system which is 
now coming into operation for general signals — that is, that the 
light shall be projected into the air by being fired out of a pistol or 
case. This would prevent all confusion, and it could then be seen 
on all sides. The signal lights which I have here are made by Mr. 
Edward S. Linton, and would be just the things to carry out the 
idea. They are cylinders stopped at one end, and containing any 
number of stars that may be desired. These stars are projected one 
after the other, at equal intervals, to a great height in the air, where 



JOURMAL, VOL. XI, AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 




23 



they burn. The machine is put in operation by striking the cap 
against a hard substance, such as the bridge, rail, or deck. By 
carrying these in the two side pockets, or in pouches on a belt, they 
come naturally to the hand, which is instinctively put in motion on 
giving the order to the helmsman. They are drawn out and fired 
instantaneously by the person giving the order, so that the factor of 
error liable to occur by having another person bungle, and perhaps 
break a lantern, is also eliminated. The rocket which I have here, 
made for me by the same gentleman, is fitted so as to be fired by 
merely pulling the primer tape, and thus doing away with the neces- 
sity of looking for a light and perhaps having it blown or washed 
out. 

An electric light at the masthead would do much to prevent col- 
lisions and stranding, by lighting up a vessel and its surroundings. 
Such a light could be supplied with electricity by the engines, and 
put in operation or extinguished by the officer of the deck himself. 
It will probably seem that I am multiplying too much the duties of 
the officer of the deck ; but I think that any one who has ever occu- 
pied that by no means enviable position in time of danger, will 
agree that, being placed in a central position with a good all- 
round view, the more all different operations can be brought under 
your own personal control the better. It is getting more difficult 
every year to get intelligent assistants. 

Having enumerated some of the general precautions that might 
be taken, let us see how they would apply to our cited dangers. 

Fire, by localizing it by bulkheads ; by giving the alarm by auto- 
matic means ; by subduing the fire by extinguishers, automatic or 
portable, or with steam water and compressed air. 

Collisions, by preventing them by the precautions proposed ; if 
not prevented, localizing the damage by bulkheads and compart- 
ments. The vessel would also be strengthened to resist the shock 
by the network of partitions. The pump and air pumps would free 
the compartments, the waterproof cases prevent the goods being 
saturated. All persons likely to hold positions on board a vessel 
where they will be required to look out for lights, should be thor- 
oughly examined in regard to Daltonism or color blindness. Recent 
researches in the German and French navies prove that many persons 
are thus affected. Upsetting must be prevented, in the first place, by 



24 



the naval architect when he plans his vessel; by the stevedore when 
he loads her, and by the seaman when he handles her. Although 
within the province of this paper, our limited time and your already 
overtaxed patience will not permit me to go more fully into this 
subject than to call your attention, if you are professional men, to 
the excellent new method of Mr. Forbes for reducing top hamper, 
and to the fact that when the rolling period of the ship and the 
period of the sea approach very closely, it is better to heave to or 
change your course. 

Stranding must be prevented by navigation, by continual sound- 
ing and reference to the chart when approaching the shore. As 
under the previous head, I must omit the interesting technical facts 
connected with improved compasses and sounding apparatus, es- 
pecially those Captain Belknap and Lieut. -Commanders Sigsbee and 
Jewell. Improved methods of approaching dangerous places, such 
as the method proposed by Lieutenant Truedell, of the French 
Navy, now employed as a captain in the service of the Transatlantic 
Company, for entering the harbor of New York in foul weather. 
There is one point, however, referring to this head and that of col- 
lision, which I would like to call your attention to; it is the fact 
that fogs are not generally very high above the water; that a ves- 
sel's masts sometimes project into a clear atmosphere above— that 
if a man is sent aloft, where, by the bye, one ought always to 
be, at least during the daytime, to look out for wrecks and rafts, 
or boats, he can often see the masts of approaching vessels, land, and 
other high objects. This is not generally thought of, even by sea- 
going people. A story is told of a captain, who was cruising off 
Wilmington, in the South, a few years ago, for the benefit of his 
health. At night, the vessels all hugged in close to the bar, to pick 
up excursion parties, who might be carrying out too much cotton. 
One morning (it was foggy) this officer decided, as he was very 
close in, to wait later than usual. Suddenly he heard the pleasant 
whistle of a shell, right between his masts; followed by another, 
with a slight improvement of aim. He politely requested one of 
his men to go aloft, and see what was the matter. This individual 
suddenly emerged into the clear sunlight, and took an instantaneous 
view of the Mound Battery, which was also enjoying a beautiful 
morning. It is needless to say that the vessel changed her range, 
and that the captain had learned a lesson. 



25 



THE LIFE-SAVING SERVICES. 



The next subject is the consideration of what is being done on 
shore for the safety of the traveler. 

The Light-house Service affords great protection. This service, 
although under the Treasury Department, is actually administered 
by the officers of the Navy and Army Engineer Corps. Admiral 
John Rodgers is at present the 'chairman of the board, which is 
made up of: three naval officers, two army officers, one ex-naval 
officer, and one scientist. The coast, rivers and lakes are divided 
into fifteen districts, each of which has a naval officer for its inspec- 
tor, and an army engineer for its constructor. Other officers are 
detailed as assistants in the large districts. There are on the At- 
lantic coast 451 lights, 43 hot-air or steam fog-signals, 422 day 
beacons, and 2,610 buoys. On the Pacific coast there are, in all, 211 
aids to navigation. We omit those on the rivers and lakes. There 
are 33 light-ships on outlying shoals and dangers. 

If all these lights were of good quality, our coast would be fairly 
well lighted. There is one improvement that should be made, and 
would be, probably, if the funds were appropriated. Every light- 
house, and especially outlying light-ships, should be signal and tele- 
graph stations. They would then be able to give warning of bad 
weather, and if a wreck occurred near them, or was likely to occur, 
they could signal for aid to the nearest port or life-saving station. 
Many valuable lives and cargoes are lost, when the timely arrival of 
a tug or ground tackle would have saved all. 

The navy, with a large corps of officers and ships in every port of 
the globe, is continually collecting information which renders navi- 
gation more safe, and therefore preserves life. There are some ships 
on special duty surveying the coasts of countries which are either 
uninhabited, or too poor to do the work themselves. 

The army, with its signal service and " Old Probabilities," warns 
the mariner of approaching bad weather, and allows him time to 
prepare for the fight. 

The private enterprise of one of our journals has done much to 
save life in giving notice of the approaches of distant storms, and 
advocating the adoption of greater precautions in the building of 
ships. 



26 



The Coast Survey, with its efficient head, an ex-naval officer, and* 
a large number of assistants, most of whom are naval officers, is con- 
stantly watching our coast, giving notice of shifting channels, and 
newly-discovered dangers, locating old ones which have been re- 
ported, and furnishing charts, which are guides to all the world ap- 
proaching our shores. 

In England, much is done to save life. Two great benevolent 
societies are at the head of the movement: the Royal Humane So- 
ciety, instituted in 17 74, to collect and circulate the most approved 
and effectual methods for recovering persons apparently drowned or 
dead; to suggest and provide suitable apparatus for, and bestow re- 
wards on, those who assist in the preservation and restoration of 
life. The Queen is its patron; the Duke of Argyle its president. 
Connected with this society are many local ones or branches. 

The Royal National Life-Boat Institution, incorporated in 1824, 
under the name of the " Royal National Institution for the Preser- 
vation of Life from Shipwreck," and changed to its present title by 
a new charter in 1854. The Duke of Northumberland is the presi- 
dent. This society, aided by sub-societies and donations, provides 
the life-boats and apparatus for the whole English coast. The boats 
are generally very large ones, some of them being propelled by 
steam. The English coast is, at most points, very high. It is in- 
dented with many small harbors. The boats are kept in these har- 
bors. The population of the coast is much more numerous than ours 
especially the maritime portion of it. The crews — they have very 
large ones — are all made up of volunteers, who are paid while in 
service. If successful in saving life, they receive special pecuniary 
rewards. The boats and crews are managed by what are called 
" local committees," the coast-guard naval officer being by the con- 
stitution a member. Where the distance to be traveled is great, 
steam and sail are used. For line-throwing, the Boxer rocket is 
used. This is a large rocket, very similar to that used for war pur- 
poses; it is fired from a wooden trough, which gives its direction 
and the proper elevation; the line is attached to the rocket. The 
method of using the line, being identical with ours, will be explained 
in connection with our own service. In 1874, there were 240 boats 
belonging to this society. The donations to the society in 1873 
amounted to £31,740. In that year it saved 668 lives, and alto- 



JOURNAL, VOL. X|,AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 

Fig. 1* ^ 




-n.AN < 



Fig. 2. 



I LIFE-BOAT, BHOWIHG THE UAKKKB 
IN WHICH THB OEAH IS STOWED. 
lioal and Bear. Litt of Articles Shutcti. 



-t. Drogne-rope. 

lK'Aving-line. 
Vceriug line". 
s. .lib untlinul or tuck. 




Fig. 1. LIFE BOAT ON CARRIAGE. 
Fig, 2. PLAN OF LIFE BOAT. 
Wig. 3. FORBES' LIFE &OAT ON WHEELS. 



27 



gether, up to that year, 22,153. It had granted 940 gold medals. 
These figures are for 1873-74, five years ago, and of course have in- 
creased very materially. The English claim that Lieutenant Bell, 
of the Royal Artillery, was the first to invent a means of conveying 
a line to a vessel, in 1791. Capt. Manby, R. K, was, however, the 
most successful of the early workers. His shot was used as late as 
1862. 

The British Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures 
and Commerce offered, in April, 1878, their gold medal to the per- 
son submitting the best means of saving life at sea when a vessel has 
to be abandoned suddenly, say with only five minutes' warn- 
ing, the shore or other vessels being in sight. The decision has 
just been rendered in favor of cork mattresses faced with hair. I 
think that our cotton or deer hair mattresses are still more effective. 
It would be interesting to have this fact tested by a competitive 
trial, under the auspices of this society, or of the Life-Saving 
Benevolent one. 

In France, the organization is somewhat similar to that of Eng- 
land, " The Societe" Centrale de Sauvetage des Nauf rages" con- 
trolling the local boards. The French use the gun in preference to 
the rocket. They claim for M. Ducarne de Blangy the credit for 
having first invented a means of conveying a line by means of a 
projectile in 1790, and to a naval paymaster, named Broquet, the 
credit of having used a life kite successfully at Boulogne, in 1851. 

In Russia, the service is managed by the Society for Assist- 
ance at Shipwrecks, under the patronage of the Grand Duchess 
Caesarevna. 

In Germany, Austria, Italy and Turkey, it is in the hands of 
similar societies. 

In our own country, the first regularly organized society which 
undertook the duty of preserving and restoring life was the Mas- 
sachusetts Humane Society; formed in 1786, and incorporated in 
1791. It began the erection of huts, for the shelter and comfort of 
persons escaped from wrecked vessels upon exposed and desolate 
portions of the coast of Massachusetts, in 1789; the first one being 
erected on LovelFs Island, near Boston. It maintains at the present 
day eight such huts. Its first life-boat station was erected at Co- 
hasset, 1807. Up to 1870, the Government appropriated in all 



28 



$35,000 to assist it. It had in 1876, with the assistance of the 
Government, 76 stations in hand. 

The second society was, The Life-Saving Benevolent Society of 
New York, incorporated in 1849. Since that time it has rendered 
the greatest assistance in organizing the life-saving stations on the 
coasts of New York and New Jersey. It has awarded a large num- 
ber of medals, and has encouraged the saving of life by volunteers. 
Its first president was Walter R. Jones, Esq. ; its present one is Mr. 
John D. Jones. Its Vice-President, Mr. Royal Phelps. Mr. W. H. 
H. Moore, a member of our council, is one of its most zealous 
workers. 

The Hon. William A. Newell, of New Jersey, a member of Con- 
gress in 1848, by a very strong speech, succeeded in getting an ap- 
propriation of $10,000 for surf boats and other appliances, to be 
used on the Jersey coast — from Sandy Hook to Little Egg Harbor. 
This amount was expended under the direction of officers detailed 
from the Revenue Marine Service and the New York Life Saving 
Benevolent Society. 

Captain Ottinger, the inventor of the life-car, is represented in an 
old plate as experimenting with his life-saving gun and life-car, be- 
fore a committee of the society — Messrs. Walter R. Jones and 
Lambert Suydam. 

Eight stations were the result of this appropriation. Captains 
McGowan and Faunce also began their long and honorable con- 
nection with the service at this time. 

March 3d, 1849, the Government made further appropriations for 
the erection of stations on the Long Island and Jersey coasts, so 
that at the end of the year about twenty-two stations were in oper- 
ation. These stations were all manned by volunteer crews, and did 
excellent service. 

Small appropriations were continued, and some few additional 
stations built; but the service did not really take any definite shape 
until the winter of 1870-71, when Congress made an appropriation 
of $200,000, and the present life-saving service was organized in 
1872, under the Treasury Department. The work done by it seems 
almost incomprehensible, in view of the smallness of the appropria- 
tions. Even these appropriations are due to the untiring personal 
efforts of the Hon. Charles B. Roberts, of Maryland, and our 



29 



townsman the Hon. S. S. Cox. To Hon. Sumner J. Kimball, a 
New Yorker, its Superintendent ; Captains McGowan and Merri- 
man, and Lieutenant Walker of the Revenue Marine, his senior 
assistants, the greatest credit is due. We know little of the 
difficulties which they have had to surmount. Results are the 
best means of measuring the value of an institution. Wherever the 
proper development has been afforded by legislative action, the suc- 
cess has been wonderful. The coast of North Carolina is the 
weakest point now, and Mr. Kimball is using every endeavor to get 
money to render it as humanly secure as the rest of the coast. 
Those who have the work in hand are fully competent to make the 
needed improvements, if only they have the means given them. 
They want assistance, and it would seem particularly appropriate 
that we, a society devoted to travel, should do what we can for them 
by word or deed. 

The coast from Maine to Florida is divided into seven districts. 
Each district is in charge of a superintendent, and the large ones 
have, besides, an assistant. It is the duty of the superintendent to 
be always on the go, inspecting his crews and stations, and drilling 
his men. 

The districts are as follows: 

No. 1. Maine and New Hampshire, 6 Life-saving Stations, 1 
building. 

No. 2. Massachusetts, 14 Life-saving Stations, 1 building. 

No. 3. Rhode Island and Long Island, 36 Life-saving Stations, 1 
building. 

No. 4. New Jersey, 40 Life-saving Stations. 

No. 5. Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia to Cape Charles, 11 
Life-saving Stations. 

No. 6. Virginia from Cape Henry, and North Carolina, 10 Life- 
saving Stations, 13 building. 

No. 7. Florida, 8 Houses of Refuge. 

The Eighth, Ninth and Tenth Districts are on the lakes, and the 
Eleventh is the coast of California and Oregon, furnished with 1 1 
life-boat stations. 

There are three classes of stations: 

First, Life-saving Stations — Situated in localities remote from set- 
tlements, furnished with every possible appliance for rescuing the 



30 



ship-wrecked, and ministering to the immediate necessities and com- 
forts of those saved. They also furnish quarters for the keepers and 
crews. On account of the limited means at the disposal of the man- 
agement, the stations are manned only during the winter months. 
That this is unwise, although necessary, the Huron disaster showed. 
The crews now consist of six surf men besides the keeper. 

Second, Life-boat Stations — Located near settlements where volun- 
teer crews can easily be summoned. These are furnished with boats 
and such other appliances as the nature of their situation calls for. 
The stations of the Eleventh District are of this nature. 

Third, Houses of Refuge — Situated in desolate localities, where 
the general state of the coast does not call for the use of the appli- 
ances furnished to the other class of stations. These are intended 
to afford shelter to those who may come ashore. They are provisioned 
and supplied with medicines, blankets, beds, &c. Small boats are 
placed in them, with which to reach points of safety or passing ves- 
sels. A keeper, with his family, resides in them. 

Some of the stations are connected with the Weather Signal Ser- 
vice, by telegraph, some are being furnished with telephones, and 
are used as warning posts for passing vessels; this feature should 
be extended to all of them, and if the international code flags were 
added to the outfits, vessels could communicate with any part of the 
world from many points on the coast. A shore line of telegraph 
should connect the stations with each other, this line being besides 
fitted with alarm boxes on the poles, similar to those used by our 
fire department, would serve for the patrols to send in signals of 
distress from wherever they might be. 

The small surf -boat is used at almost all the stations. Our coast 
is so sandy and rugged that it is impossible to transport life-boats 
weighing generally four or five thousand pounds. The surf men 
are also familiar with this style of boat, and seem to place more 
reliance in it than in any other. The smallness of the crews renders 
even this very difficult of transportation to any distance. Where 
they can be hired, horses are used, but where they are most wanted 
they cannot be obtained. It is recommended that four horses be 
kept at the stations on the most exposed and desolate parts of the 
coast. The patrols could ride two of these horses, the other two 
being always in reserve to bring out the apparatus. 



JOURNAL, VOL. XI, AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 

rig. 1. 





Fig. 1. EXTERIOR VIEW OF LIFE SAVING STATION. 
Fig. 2. RIDER LIFE RAFT. 



31 



The men, as we have before stated, are employed for only a part 
of the year. This necessitates the breaking in of new crews every 
season. The pay is small and the work most arduous, which pre- 
vents men from reshipping. It is now proposed to regularly enlist 
the men, employing them in the off months in drilling, making a 
coast road, building stations, repairing apparatus, putting up tele- 
graphs, and patrolling the coast, in case of a possible accident, or 
to prevent smuggling. The crew, as it now stands, is too small. 
Two men are always on patrol; in case of an alarm, one or both of 
these will be absent. The beats at present, in some localities, are 
longer than can possibly be watched by one man, often reaching a 
length of eight miles. Then, again, no lee- way is left for the sick 
list, or unavoidable absence. By a regular system of enlistment 
good crews could be obtained from districts where plenty of men 
are to be found, and transferred to those where the material is 
poor. 

The appliances furnished at a complete station are: 

A surf -boat fully equipped, boat carriage, mortar and appliances, 
pin board with line, sand tarpaulin and pegs, whip and hawser. Sand 
anchor, tackle and crutch. 

Signal flags, lanterns and coston lights. 

Beach light. 

Life car, life raft and breeches buoy, medicines, tools, provisions, 
blankets and beds, also 

A hand cart, in which those of the above-named articles, except 
the boat, that are required at the scene of action, are conveyed. 

The boat is used when advisable; chief reliance, however, is placed 
in the line. 

The method of proceeding is as follows: three hundred fathoms 
of line are coiled on a pin board, the different layers running clear 
of each other, and paying off the pins. This board is covered by a 
box, when wanted for use. The box is turned over, the pin-board 
being carefully withdrawn, guided by the false bottom. This leaves 
the line faked in the box. This box is placed to windward of the 
mortar, and the end of the line is attached, either by means of a 
spiral spring, or directly, to the projectile. The latter method has 
proved the most certain; care is taken to wet the end of the line to 
prevent its burning. The projectile is elongated in shape, the line 



32 



coming to the outer end, which protrudes from the muzzle. On 
starting, the projectile first turns over, so as to bring the line to the 
rear. The mortar is trained so as to point between the masts of the 
vessel. Should the first shot miss, the line is run in and coiled on 
the tarpaulin, which is pinned down to the ground with tent pegs. 

The line, having reached the vessel, is hauled upon by those on 
board, the whip block having been attached to the shore end. At- 
tached to the block, is a board or bottle with directions in English, 
French and German for making it fast. The block is made fast as 
high above the deck as possible, by means of its tail. The next 
operation is the hauling out of the hawser; done by those on shore, 
who have first taken the precaution to join the two ends of the 
whip. The hawser is made fast to the mast above the tail block. 
As soon as " all fast " is signalled from the vessel, the shore end is 
hauled hand taut. The sand anchor, two pieces of heavy plank 
crossed and fitted with an eye-bolt at the intersection, is planted in 
a trench. The crutch is then set up; the hawser being taken over 
its crotch. The tackle is clapped on to the hawser, and hooked to 
the sand anchor. If the vessel is rolling, it is necessary to tend the 
tackle, if not, it is set taut and belayed. The life-car, which is like 
a small life-boat with a cover, is then suspended to the hawser, 
hauled out to the wreck by means of the whip, the bight of which 
is made fast to a traveler; when loaded, it is hauled ashore again by 
the other part of the whip. 

The car is necessary when there are landsmen, women, children 
or invalids to be conveyed ; for seamen the breeches buoy is used. 
This is a large cork life preserver with a pair of canvas breeches 
attached, the man sitting in it. This buoy may be used on the whip 
alone if necessary. 

The rescued persons once ashore are taken to the station and 
cared for. 

The records of the service show this year that within the limits 
of the operations of the service 171 disasters to vessels. On board 
these vessels were 1,557 persons. The estimated value of the vessels 
is $1,879,063 and that of their cargoes $745,672, making the total 
value of the property involved $2,624,735. The number of lives 
saved was 1,331 and the number lost 226. Of the latter number 183 
perished in the disaster to the United States steamer Huron and the 



JOURNAL, VOL. XI,AMERiCAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 

Fig. 1. 




Fig. 2. 



Fig. 3. 



^^Si^rrr^^ s ss s5;^ gy^ Pi ^ s ^ ., s^ l ^>a > ^ ^cjl-.^^^cs^^^.^.^^^^ 




Fig. 4, 




Fig, li METHOD OF FAKING LINE IN BOX. 

Fig. 2. METALLIC LIFE CAR. 

Fig. 3. SECTION THROUGH METALLIC LIFE CAR. 

Fig. 4, BREECHES BUOY USED WITH HAWSER. 

Fig. 5. BREECHE S BUOY USED ON SHIP. 



33 



steamship Metropolis — 98 in the former and 85 in the latter. The 
number of shipwrecked persons sheltered and succored at the sta- 
tions during the year was 425, the total number of days' relief 
afforded them being 832. The total value of property saved is esti- 
mated at $1,097,375, and the amount lost at $1,527,360. The num- 
ber of disasters involving the total loss of vessels and cargoes was 
595. These statistics show that the disasters of the present year 
were greater in number and severer in character than the service 
has ever before encountered, a fact established by the record of 171 
disasters within life-saving limits against 134, the highest number 
of any former year, and of 59 vessels and cargoes totally lost, in 
contrast with the highest antecedent record of 34. A large propor- 
tion of the loss of life is made up, as before stated, of the 183 per- 
sons who perished at the wrecks of the Huron and Metropolis, the 
first wreck occurring before the opening of the stations under the 
provisions of law, and the latter between two stations at such a 
distance from either as to greatly hinder successful operations, con- 
ditions which had long been indicated by the officers in charge of 
the service as pregnant with fatality. Tbere were four other wrecks, 
involving the loss of ten lives, which occurred when the stations 
were closed, and one other disaster, involving the loss of four lives, 
happened at a distance which made prompt assistance impossible. 
The General Superintendent shows that the number of lives lost 
fairly and legitimately within the scope of the effective operations 
of the service was but twenty-nine, and further shows that this loss 
of life was unpreventable by human efforts. The particulars of 
each case are given in detail. 

Thus far the lines have been sent from the shore to the vessel, 
and Lieutenant D. A. Lyle, of the Army Ordnance Corps, who has 
been for some time experimenting for the service, has succeeded in 
producing a bronze, muzzle-loading, smooth-bore gun, of which he 
recommends three calibres 2 in., 2.5 in., 3 in., to be used according 
to the ranges required in the different parts of our coast. This gun 
with its carriage and shot weighs a little over 200 lbs, and has 
reached a maximum range of 695 yards, far more than any other 
has ever succeeded in doing. The shots weigh 13, 19 and 23 lbs. 
respectively. The line used is waterproof braided linen thread, 
very carefully selected, made by the Silver Lake Company. One of 



34 



the great advantages of this gun and projectile is that it does not 
allow the line to sag to leeward as much as its predecessors, and 
therefore gives greater accuracy. Rifled guns cannot be used with 
lines, as the rifled motion would twist them and cause them to foul. 

Mr. Edmund S. Hunt, of Weymouth, Massachusetts, has in- 
vented an apparatus for throwing lines, which, under certain cir- 
cumstances, principally on account of its portability and compact- 
ness, might be of great service. It consists of two hollow metallic 
cylinders, closed at one end. In each of these is coiled away part 
of the line to be thrown. One of these cylinders, containing enough 
line to reach the object, is loaded into a very light gun, also of his 
invention; the other is held in the hand of the operator. When the 
gun is fired, the cylinder leaves it and turns over, paying out the 
line as it goes. If there should not be enough line in it to reach the 
object, the line in the second cylinder acts as a reserve. The theory 
is very good, and if the gun had been as good the system would 
probably have been adopted. You have all seen a hose-cart at fires. 
When the hose is first attached to the hydrant, or engine, and the 
reel dragged away, paying out the hose as it goes, it is an easy 
operation; but if the hose-cart is taken to the scene of the fire 
several blocks away, and then the hose unreeled by hand, and the 
end dragged to the hydrant, the operation is much more difficult. 
This is the principle of Hunt's shot, and that of all instruments of a 
similar nature where the line is payed out from the movable body, 
and not dragged by it. 

In all the life-saving services to which we have referred, the lines 
have been sent from the shore to the ship; it is conceded by 
all that this is not the proper way. The line should come 
from the ship; but, until we can force shipowners and governments 
to provide their vessels with some means of sending lines, and even 
having them to send, we must continue this method. 

When a ship goes ashore the wind is generally blowing hard on 
shore, and the sea setting in the same direction; it is true that there 
is generally more or less of a current running parallel with the 
beach; therefore, from the ship we have two elements acting in our 
favor. From the shore we have this against us. From the shore 
we have only a small target, the ship, to fire at. If she comes in 
and strands bows on, it is smaller, even, than when she presents her 



JOURNAL, VOL. XI.AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 





o o o o-c 


-Jc 


oo 


o 


- 


o 


o 




o 


o 




o 


o 




o 


G 




-8 


o 




.0 


O i 




i-Q 


O I 







O | 




ro 


o 







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o ; 







o 







o 







oooo-eoooo 











JOURNAL, VOL. XI, AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 

rig. 1. 




Fig. 1. FOLGER'S GRAPNELL SHOT. 
Fig. 2. FOLGER'S LIFE SAVING SHOT. 
Fig. 3. CHANDLER'S ANCHOR SHOT. 



35 



broadside to us. Sending a line to a ship's bows is a very difficult 
operation, under the most favorable circumstances, especially so in 
winter, when the bows are generally covered with an armor of ice. 
On a dark stormy night, or in the fog, the ship may not be 
visible at all. From the ship we have the whole continent as a 
target. 

An apparatus on the ship would be at hand, and could be started 
immediately; on the shore it may have to be brought miles, under 
the greatest difficulties, consuming sometimes hours of precious 
time. Furthermore, on some coasts there are no life-saving appli- 
ances to be brought, and the ship would always have hers with 
her. 

The following are some of the methods that might be used from 
the ship: 

A life-saving gun, similar to those used on shore, which would 
also answer as a signal gun for a merchant vessel. 

A man-of-war could use her own guns if proper shot were pro- 
vided. Capt. Ralph Chandler, U. S. N., has been experimenting 
lately, and has obtained excellent results with our guns, using a shot 
which is fitted with arms forming the flukes of an anchor; these 
fasten themselves in the ground or rocks where they land, so that 
the line may be hauled upon without the aid of persons on shore. 
This would be a great advantage on uninhabited coasts. 

Lieut. -Comd'r. W. M. Folger has also been experimenting in the 
same line, and has obtained excellent results. 

If a shot is not provided, a length of chain can be wound up into 
a ball of the proper size, and thus secured the line is made fast to 
the end of the chain. An empty shell with the line toggled in the 
fuse-hole might serve. 

The objections to using a gun would be that when there was much 
motion on, or the seas washing over the vessel, or the vessel on her 
beam-ends, it might not be possible to get it in the proper position 
for firing. About eighty per cent, of vessels that go broadside on, 
heel to seaward. 

Rockets might be used with good effects. With as weak a rocket 
as our common signal one, I sent a line four hundred feet last year. 
A small line fastened to the ramrod of a musket might be used for 
short distances. Captain ISTares, of the English Navy, known to 



36 



you probably in connection with the voyage of the Challenger and 
the last Arctic expedition, proposes a large kite, made of canvas and 
spars and fitted with two lines, so that it can be guided up or down. 
To this I have added an anchor-tail. Such a kite would also be of 
use in communicating between vessels at sea where it was dangerous 
to lower a boat. A line fastened to a box or barrel might drift 
ashore. 

An expert swimmer in a life-preserver, or on a mattress or bolsa 
might reach the shore in safety with the end of the line, if better 
means were not at hand. 

Capt. James E. Jouett and Lieut. -Comd'r W. B. Hon 2 , of the 
Navy, have invented an apparatus which will probably be adopted 
in the service. It consists of a float carrying a reel, on which can be 
wound 6,000 feet of line. At the forward end is a large rec- 
tangular shield. This shield is so placed that, no matter how the 
float turns, one corner will always be up to act as a sail and one 
down to act as an anchor. The weight of the apparatus is about 
200 pounds. It is intended to be carried one on each side of the 
vessel, hung over the side at sea, the end of the line being made fast 
on board. No matter how the vessel grounds, one at least will be 
in position for use. It is let go by a detaching apparatus and starts 
for the shore paying out the line, which, being heavier than water, 
sinks and lies along the bottom; this prevents drifting. As the line 
pays out from the float there is no retardation. The sail-point is 
acted on by the wind, which would force the whole machine across 
any moderate coast-current. When it gets into shallow water the 
lower point keeps it from being carried back with the undertow ; 
each succeeding wave carrying it higher on the beach, where it is 
picked up by those on shore. If the coast is uninhabited it acts in 
the same manner as the anchor-shot already referred to. A ring- 
buoy is to be attached to this float, so that it can be used at sea to 
succor a person overboard. 

Another float is that of Dr. Newell, of Asbury Park, New Jersey. 
This is a cone, which floats on its side, point foremost. Near the 
rear end is a concave diaphragm, in the centre of which is secured a 
bar which passes to the rear through a cross-support and projects 
some distance beyond, having an eye in its end; to this eye is at- 
tached the end of the line. The buoy is put overboard, and the wind 



I 



JOURNAL, VOL. X|, AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 1879. 




Ceo 



Fiq. 1, JOUETT— HCFF APPARATUS. 

Fig. 2. LIFE SAVING BY MEANS OF ROCKET AND BREECHL S 9U0Y. 



37 



and sea acting on its rear end it is driven towards the shore. When 
its reaches the coast-current it is steered across by hauling on or 
slacking the line from on board. This causes the current to act 
against one or the other interior faces of the cone and makes it act 
like the swing-bridges still to be seen on some of our Western rivers. 
The line once ashore, there is a good chance of saving all hands. 
Of course it would be better if the ship carried and sent ashore the 
whip and hawser. A life-car or buoy could easily be contrived from 
the means at hand. 

And now, gentlemen and ladies, as I know you would like to 
have a look at the practical working of our system, let me invite 
you to put on your warmest clothing, your waterproofs and your 
thick boots, and come with me this evening to the lonely coast of 
North Carolina, not quite so lonely as it was on the night the Huron 
was lost. The patrol man of the nearest station, which is eight 
miles off, is now there. But see, he is looking seaward. He thought 
just now that he saw the gleam of a light. He was right. Almost 
blinded by the salt spray from the sea mixed with sand from the 
beach, he is able to make out a vessel's lights, and to add to his 
certainty, there goes her gun. She is heading right in for the 
breakers and will ground in a few seconds. The patrol burns his 
Coston light to show them that they are seen. More he cannot do 
until he summons assistance. He starts for the station, and after 
weary hours of toiling, which can only be appreciated by those who 
have tried such a journey on our coast in a winter's storm, he 
reaches his destination. The alarm is given, and in a few minutes 
the crew start with their apparatus. Six men, all told, one being 
far away to the westward on patrol, and cannot be recalled, and one 
of this small number is already exhausted by his previous endea- 
vors, dragging a hand-cart weighing, with its load, over 1,700 lbs., 
almost 280 lbs. per man, 180 being the utmost allowed, on level 
roads, as the traction of one man, with the wheels, whose tires are 
five inches broad, sinking several inches into the sand. After tugging 
through sand, and floundering in mud, sometimes entirely halted by 
the storm, at all times straining every muscle, they reach the scene 
of disaster. There they find that hours before the vessel has gone 
to pieces, and all that they can do is to save a few corpses from the 
surf. Could human beings have done more with the means at 



38 



hand ? And when we know that these men get for such work a 
sum of $1.33 a day for five months in the year, can we say that they 
have not fully earned it ? Yet with all this, to morrow the opinion 
will go forth, from the pens of a hundred well-clothed and comfort- 
ably-lodged gentlemen, that the U. S. Life-saving Service is a fraud, 
the organization is bad, the officers are inefficient, the crews are 
poor, and the patrolmen negligent in the performance of their 
duties. Now, should these same gentlemen devote their energies to 
assisting the Service, instead of belittling it, in the popular opinion, 
how much could be gained. The lesson would be taken to heart; 
public sentiment would come to the aid of the organization; appro- 
priations would be increased, and everything done to make such 
another accident impossible. With such aid to carry out the plans 
already matured, we should have another story. The patrolman, 
two, or at most three miles from his station, would have dismounted 
from his horse; going to the nearest telegraph pole, he would have 
sent in the alarm; burnt his light; and watched for the line to 
come ashore; he would then have attached the line to his horse, and 
with his aid have hauled in the whip. In the meantime, the crew, 
with the apparatus drawn by two good horses, would have arrived 
by an excellent coast road made by the men in summer. The haw- 
ser would then be sent out, or one might be hauled ashore from the 
ship if it could be gotten at on board. The car then attached and 
hauled out, the horses being used to assist, it would then come 
ashore; and when opened who knows but what young Solon, son 
of Congressman Solon, and Mr. Hardcash, the great banker and 
beloved friend of Senator Demosthenes, might not be found com- 
fortably ensconced therein ? What a comforting thing it would be 
to Messrs. Demosthenes and Solon to think that they had both 
voted for the increased appropriation, and a bill for the further per- 
fecting of the United States Life-saving Service. Who knows but 
we ourselves, or our friends, may some day need the life-car ? 



iftfl^fc 




JVo. 11 West 29th Street. 



THE OBJECTS OF THE SOCIETY. 

The objects of the Society are to encourage geographical exploration 
and discovery ; to investigate and disseminate new geographical informa- 
tion by discussion, lectures and publications ; to establish in the chief 
maritime city of the country, for the benefit of commerce, navigation, and 
the great industrial and material interests of the United States, a place 
where the means will be afforded of obtaining accurate information for 
public use of every part of the habitable globe. The Society has been 
in existence twenty-six years. It has a geographical library of thirteen 
thousand volumes, and a large and very valuable collection of Maps, 
Charts, and Atlases relating to every pari of the world. It publishes a 
Bulletin, an annual Journal, and co-operates and interchanges information 
with one hundred and ten domestic and foreign Geographical and other 
Scientific Societies. 

The initiation fee and annual dues of a Fellow for the first year are $10 ; 
and the dues $10 yearly thereafter. Life Fellowship, free from all dues, 
$100. 



©fliers and igjaunxjilxxrs for J879* 



Itaibeni, 
CHARLES P. DALY. 

GEORGE W. CULLUM, FREDERICK A. CONKLING, 

FRANCIS A. STOUT. 

^foreign CoTOspoirbrng ^rxreiarg, 
ROSWELL D. HITCHCOCK. 

Jtomxsiit Correspnbhtg Hwxefarjr, 
JAMES MUHLENBERG BAILEY. 

Jlecorbwg ^zcntm^, 

ELIAL F. HALL. 

feagura;, 

LEVI P. MORTON. 

Councilor!*, 

WILLIAM REMSEN, ISAAC I. HAYES, 

T. BAILEY MYERS, GEORGE CABOT WARD, 

W. H. H. MOORE, PAUL B. DU CHAILLU, 

WILLIAM E. CURTIS, WILLIAM H. MORRELL, 

WALTON W. EVANS, J. CARSON BREVOORT, 

ISAAC BERNHEIMER, HENRY B. HAMMOND, 

HARLOW M. HOYT, EGBERT L. VIELE, 
CLARENCE KING. 



